Example #1

Gilgamesh was a Sumerian king presiding over the city-state of Uruk during the Second Early Dynastic Period. The epic of Gilagmesh, one of the most popular works in Sumerian and Akkadian literature (Gardner and Maier, Gilgamesh, 1984, pg 4), gave concrete clues to the role of a king in ancient Mesopotamia. Specifically, in Sumerian society, the ruler was not considered to be a divine being and was required to consult with others for the interpretation of the gods’ will.

The epic of Gilgamesh gave many examples of the kings’ inferior social status in relation to the gods. At the beginning of the tablets, the general population was displeased with Gilgamesh’s demand for ceremonial deflorations. As a result, the citizens of Uruk appealed to the gods. "Is this our shepherd, strong, full of thought? Gilgamesh does not let the young women go to her mother, the girl to the warrior, the bride to the young groom. The gods heard their lamentation (pg 67)." In response to the citizen’s concerns, the gods created Enkidu to temper the power of Gilgamesh. This act shows that Gilgamesh did not have absolute power over his people. Gilgamesh also sought protection and guidance from the gods, which illustrated his status. On more than one occasion, the gods were called upon to interpret vivid omens contained in the dreams of Gilgamesh and Enkidu. Gilgamesh turned to his mother, the Goddess Ninsum, for this duty. "Gilgamesh rises, speaks to Ninsun his mother to untie his dream… the goddess Ninsum, skilled, wise, who knows everything speaks to Gilgamesh. (Pg 81-82)" Before Gilgamesh and Enkidu’s journey to slay Humbaba, they visited a temple. "Let us go to Egalmah, the great temple, to the presence of Ninsun, the great queen. Ninsun the wise, who knows everything. A wise path she will lay out for our feet (pg 111)." Gilgamesh and Enkidu sought guidance from the gods for the voyage that lay ahead.

Gilgamesh also shared his power with the counsel of elders. The elders were consulted before Gilgamesh and Enkidu embark on their quest to slay Humbaba. "Enkidu, we in our assembly entrust the king to you; you, in turn, return him to us again. (Pg 111)" The elders’ words were heeded and Enkidu lead the way through the forest. The elders also instructed the travelers to pay homage to the gods. "At night, time of rest, dig a well, so that the water in your waterskin is always pure. Offer up cool water to Shamash, and keep Lugalbanda always in your mind. (Pg 125). In the following tablets, Gilgamesh followed the elder’s instructions and dug a well before resting for the night during their travels (pg 126).

The quotes referenced above show clear evidence of a king’s status in Sumerian society. The counsel of elders tempered a king’s power and all of humanity was ultimately left to the mercy of the gods.