The Middle Ages
Notre Dame in Paris (La cathédrale Notre-Dame de Paris), photo credit Frank Jordano
Historians generally consider the Middle Ages to have lasted from the fall of Rome to the Renaissance, approximately 400-1400 CE. Furthermore, the "Middle Ages" can be subdivided into early (the Dark Ages) from about 400 to 1000, the middle (the High Middle Ages) from about 1000 to 1300 and the late from about 1300 to 1450. The Dark Ages included the migrations of barbarians and the set up of small, barbarian kingdoms. The stability and prosperity achieved by Charlemagne did not long survive his death, as Western Europe experienced the Viking raids of the ninth century. During the High Middle Ages, there was a revival of trade and a growth in towns and the urban population. This was partly a result of agricultural improvements that produced a surplus and allowed trade. Universities started to appear, signaling another revival of learning, and the construction of cathedrals began, symbolizing the power and presence of the church in the lives of everyone. This was an entire span of time in which the fortunes of the church--There was only one single, Christian church in Western Europe--reached their peak in the West, as the church dominated almost every aspect of everyday life. By the fifteenth century, that church control had begun to wane. An extremely complicated struggle was waged during the Middle Ages between church and state for political-economic-social power, popes vs. kings. Remember, the pope himself was kind of a king as he controlled territory in central Italy that later came to be called the papal states. Where was the dividing line between church and secular state? Everyone was part of the church; did that mean that the pope could tell them what to do? Bishops/monasteries/the church controlled rich lands and wanted to keep control. Since church clergy technically could not marry and pass on their lands to their heirs, the power of appointing men to take up church positions, such as the bishop of the city of Cologne, was very important. Emperors, kings and popes clashed over this power. Emperors/kings wanted their supporters in these positions, as did popes. This struggle came to a head between Henry 4, Holy Roman Emperor 1056-1108, and Gregory 7, Pope 1073-1085. Pope Gregory wanted to reassert papal control over the appointment of bishops, and in general he wanted to make sure that the pope was the supreme power in Europe: “that he has the power to depose emperors”; "that his decree can be annulled by no one"; "that he can be judged by no one." Henry at first refused to cooperate with the pope, but he later was forced to agree with the pope as he was losing control of his nobles who had been released from their oaths of loyalty by the pope. This was the high point of the church's power. The High Middle Ages was also about the rise of national monarchies, especially in England and France. We’ve seen some of that with Charlemagne’s empire, but it was really only in the eleventh century that we had the emergence of stable monarchies in England and France. Some factors contributing to this consolidation of power by kings might include:
France was one of the first to consolidate a national monarchy. Hugues Capet, Duke of the Franks, was elected king in 987 (died 996). Initially, he had little real power outside of the properties that he controlled as Count of Paris, but that central location gave his heirs an advantage and the office of king provided moral justification. The continuing support of the church, and a long uninterrupted succession of sons allowed the dynasty to slowly increase in power. French dynasties:
England also emerged as a national monarchy in the eleventh century, largely beginning with the Norman Conquest, 1066. With the death of Edward the Confessor (1042-1066), William (1028-1087), Duke of Normandy, the illegitimate son of Robert 1 the Magnificent, Duke of Normandy, laid claim to the throne of England (It was a very complicated claim!). His successful invasion led to his assuming the throne of England, 1066-1087. English dynasties:
Finally, the Middle Ages were a time of war, almost constant war, and this was one of the reasons that feudalism emerged as a means of providing local defense. The wars/conflicts were usually fought on a local level, but these isolated, personal wars could also escalate into regional and even national conflicts. In the process of escalation, national loyalties could emerge--towards the country of France, for example. If one questions why the prevalence of so much violence in the Middle Ages, then one answer is that the knight's duty, according to the three-class theory of society, was to fight, and so he fought. Organized jousting was only the tip of the iceberg. The church, constantly frustrated by this anti-Christian violent behavior, tried later to push this quest for war into more useful areas, i.e., the Crusades.
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